Hinduism
The
word Hindu originally meant people living on the banks
of the river Sindhu. Now it has
religious-cum-philosophical connotations. The roots of
Hindu Philosophy are the ideas of the Vedas.The
Vedas are called Shruti or `that which is heard'
and are regarded as revelations to sages passed down
orally to disciples and students. Such ideas led
to the Samkhya system of philosophy, which is
astik (Theist), rational and systematic in its
approach. The sage Kapila of 7th century BC is
considered to be its founder.
Yoga is a system complementary to Samkhya,
dealing with the practical attainment of liberation from
worldly ties. Together the two systems are referred to
as SamkhyaYoga. Vedanta refers to the 108
Upanishads which are philosophical musings of the Vedas
about the Cause of Creation, Being, Cosmos and so on.
Prominent exponents of Vedanta are Shankaracharya and
Ramanuja. In contrast, Charvaka or Lokayata philosophy
is a Nastin (Atheist), materialist system, which
rejects Shrutis, deities, and even the idea of
re-incarnation.
Vaisheshika philosophy has a scientific rather than a
metaphysical approach and believes that the world is
made up of innumerable but distinct (vishesha)
particles. Nyaya is a complementary philosophy
trying to arrive at `nyaya' or knowledge, which is
`just', or `right'. Bhagavat-Gita , a part of the
epicMahabharata>, expounds the synthesis of three
yogas or ways of attaining union with the Supreme Self,
Gyana-yoga (union through knowledge),
Bhakti-yoga (union through devotion) and
Karma-yoga (union through action).
In relatively later times, Chaitanyadev, Rammohun Roy
and Ramkrishna Paramahamsa have enriched Hindu
philosophy in their own ways.
Christianity
Christianity
is not native to the Indian soil, although there have
been Christian communities in Kerala almost since the
founding of the religion by Jesus Christ. Born in
Bethlehem, to Mary and Joseph (who was a carpenter),
Jesus spread love and mercy to all. In the environment
of the Roman Empire, his message acquired a unique force
of its own, the powers-that-be had him crucified after
he had been betrayed to them by one of his own
disciples. But he rose from his tomb and this
Resurrection gave new strength to his other followers,
who went on spreading his message.
The Christians believe in a trinity of God the
Father, God the Son, and God the Holy Ghost. Their Holy
Scripture, the Bible, is a collection of 73 books dating
from about 9th century B.C. to the end of the 1st
century A.D., divided into two sections: the Old
Testament which corresponds to the Bible of Judaism and
the New Testament which is entirely based on Christ's
messsages.
Christians worship in what are called churches,
praying both alone and in congregations. Although there
are many sects and denominations of Christians, the two
primary divisions are Roman Catholics and
Protestants. The head of the Catholic Church is
the Pope at Vatican. The Christian calendar
calculates years from Christ's death. 10 years before
Christ's death is 10 B.C. and 10 years after is 10A.D.
St Thomas the Apostle is said to have arrived in
India in 54 A.D. Later, with the advent of the
Portugese, the French and the British in India, there
was further Christian influence. In India, Christians
are basically converts, although there are descendants
of European settlers and Anglo-Indians. In Goa, which
had been long a Portugese domain, and the north-eastern
states Mizoram and Nagaland, which had been under
effective missionary influence, Christians form the
majority of the population.
Sikhism
Sikhism
was started in Punjab by Guru Nanak in the late 15th
century. Followers of this religion are known as the
Sikhs. There are about ten million Sikhs in India of
whom over 85% live in Punjab. The majority of the
remainder live in Haryana and Delhi. They are also
scattered in other parts of India. Some Sikhs have also
settled in Malaysia, Singapore, east Africa, England,
the United States of America and Canada. The word Sikh
means disciple. They are the disciples of their ten
Gurus- the chain beginning with Guru Nanak and ending
with Guru Gobind Singh.
Guru Nanak was born in
1469 in the village of Rai Bhoi di Talwandi. His father
was a revenue collector. Nanak received a traditional
Hindu education. From his early age only he came into
the association of holy men. For some time he worked as
the accountant of the Afghan Chieftain at Sultanpur.
There he met a Muslim family servant, Mardana. Nanak
began to compose hymns. Mardana started composing music
for them and the two soon made a religious hymn-singing
party. From the offering made, they organised a canteen
where Muslims and Hindus could eat together. At
Sultanpur, Nanak had first vision of God. He was ordered
to preach mankind. While bathing in a river one day a
miracle happened and Nanak disappeared. When he
re-appeared on the third day he had become the
'enlightened one'. He began preaching religious harmony
between the Hindus and Muslims.
Guru Nanak
visited many parts of India and preached people. He
spent the last years of his life in Kartarpur where he
raised the first Sikh temple. Before he died in 1539, he
nominated one of his disciples, Angad , as his
successor.
Guru Angad (Guru 1539-52) was followed
by Guru Amar Das (Guru 1552-74); Guru Ram Das (Guru
1574-81); guru Arjun (Guru 1581-1606); Guru Hargobind
(Guru 1606-44); Guru Har Rai (Guru 1644-61); Guru
Harkrishan (Guru 1661-64); Guru Tegh Bahadur (Guru
1664-75) and Guru Gobind Singh (Guru
1675-1708).
The execution of two Gurus, Arjun Dev
and Guru Tegh Bahadur, by Mughals compelled the Sikhs to
take to arms. On April 13, 1699 Guru Gobind Singh
initiated five Sikhs into a new fraternity called Khalsa
(Pure). He gave them a common surname, 'Singh' (lion).
Kaur (Lioness) is the corresponding name given to all
Sikh women. The number five has always had mystic
significant in the Punjab- land of five rivers. The
first Khalsa were the Panj Payares- the five loved
ones.
Islam
Islam had its genesis
outside India, in what is now Saudi Arabia. Followers of
this faith are called Muslims. Islam was basically
propounded by prophet Mohammad (born around 570A.D. in
Mecca), although the belief is that it was brought to
the world by Adam and different messengers were sent by
God to preach this lesson and Mohammad was the one who
came last. In other words, Mohammad gave the final
form to an already existing religion. Muslims are also
referred to as Mohammedans.
The sacred book of the Muslims is the Quran (from
Arabic `to recite'), held to be revelations from Allah,
and not the preachings of Prophet Mohammad.
Engraved on a tablet in heaven, the Quran has existed
from the beginning of time and was revealed to Mohammad
himself through the angel Jibreel (Gabriel).
Islam is a monotheistic faith and the acceptance of
Allah as the one God, and Mohammad as his prophet, is
called Shahda. A Muslim is required to perform the
devotional exercise of Namaaz five times a day. In the
ninth month of the Muslim calendar, Ramzan, the Muslims
have to observe Roza, a strict fast from dawn to dusk on
each day of the month. They should visit Mecca, the
birthplace of Mohammad, the prophet or Haji, at least
once in a lifetime, and this pilgrimage is called Haj.
They should donate a portion of their income to the
poor, and this is the Zakat. Together, Shahda,
Namaaz, Roza, Haji and Zakat constitute the five
ingredients of Islam. Muslims worship at Masjids or
mosques.
The law of Islam is the Shariah, believed to be based
on divine revelations. The majority of the Muslim
community are the Sunnis who consider that Mohammad as a
prophet can have no successor. For the Shi'a Muslims,
the main religious authority is the Imam or priest.
Muslims entered India for the first time at the
beginning of the 8th century when the Arabs made their
inroads. Muslim invaders and settlers, other than the
Arab conquerors of Sind, belonged to various Asiatic
races, Iranian Persians, Turks, Afghans, other people of
mixed descent, and even Mongols. Muslim
immigration ended with the establishment of the Mughal
dynasty in the 16th century. Increase in Muslim
population since then has been by conversion and natural
population growth. It was because of the weightage of
the Muslim population in undivided India that in 1947,
the Partition was effected and Pakistan was born a day
before India regained her independence.
Jainism
Jainism
is an ancient, Indian-born philosophy, dating back to
Vedic times. 24 preachers known as `Jinas' (conquerors)
or `Tirthankaras' (fordmakers) propounded it across the
river of life. Its first founder or `Tirthankara' was
one Rishabhadeva mentioned in the Yajur Veda. The 24th
and last Tirthankara was Mahavira. It is a Nastik
(Atheist) philosophy and does not accept the Vedas to be
revelations from God. In fact, it does not believe in a
God, though it does believe in re-birth. The ethical
doctrines of Jainism are based on the path of
liberation, comprising right belief, right knowledge and
right conduct. The prescriptions or rules of Jainism are
about the way to achieve this liberation. They apply
both to ascetics and householders. The householders have
twelve Vratas or codes of conduct, five Anuvratas (small
vows) and seven Shilavratas (supplementary vows). If the
Anuvaratas are strictly performed, they become
Mahavratas (Great vows).
The Jains have two major sects, Digambara
(Sky-clad or naked) and Shvetambara (White-clad).
Digambara Jains are more austere and go about nude or
free from all material trappings and social inhibitions.
They allow for voluntary death in order to attain
Kavalajnana or final liberation. In the later and less
austere sect Shvetambara, people can use a simple white
cloth. The difference in the two sects is more in
rituals than in doctrines.
Jains believe in Anekantavada, or the
theory that reality is many-sided. They subscribe to
Syadavada, that is, prefix the word `syad' to
every proposition as a check against dogmatism. They do
not believe a statement to be complete unless all its
varying conditions have been fully stated, and this has
led to an expanded form of Syadavada known as
Saptabhanginaya
Buddhism
Buddhism originated from the teachings
of Gautama Buddha, a prince from the Nepalese terai, who
relinquished palace life for a life of meditation and
spiritual upliftment, emphasized dhamma or right
conduct, and organized monks and nuns into monasteries
called samghas. The philosophy of Buddhism is to take
the Middle Path, avoiding the extremes of getting
addicted to worldly pleasures and subjecting oneself to
unnecessary rigours. It rejects the idea of God, and
stresses on moral progress independent of any God or
Godlike figure. It questions the idea of a permanent or
immortal soul, but accepts the idea of transmigration of
souls.
A most important idea of Buddhism is that of the Four
Noble Truths: Suffering exists; it is caused by desire;
suffering can cease; and there does exist a path to
nirvana or cessation of suffering. This Noble Eightfold
Path consists of : Right resolve, Right speech,
Right conduct, Right livelihood, Right effort,
Right mindfulness, and Right concentration.
Later Buddhism split into two sects, Mahayana and
Hinayana (Theravada). Mahayana laid stress on the
concept of the Bodhisatta or `one destined to be the
Buddha' and also conceived of Eternal Buddhas who
resemble gods or deities. Hinayana regarded the
Buddha as a man and had a doctrine, Theravada, stressing
the salvation of the individual. Later, the
interaction of Mahayana philosophy and Hinduism gave
rise to Tantric Buddhism or Vajrayana.
Zoroastrianism
Zoroastrianism
had its genesis in Iran. As they hail from a Pars
in south-west Iran, the people who practise this
religion are known as the Parsis. In 642, when the
last Iranian empire was conquered by the Arabs, most
Zoroastrians were forcibly converted to Islam.
Others fled the country. Today, of the 1,30,000
Zoarstrians in the world, about 1,00,000 live in
India. Although their number has never been very
large, and is in fact dwindling, the Zoroastrians or
Parsis have retained their identity very strictly.
Despite being a small community, they have
contributed enormously to India. Dadabhai Naoroji,
author of the path-breaking book Poverty and Un-British
Rule In India, Jamshedji Tata, the father of Indian
steel industry, JRD Tata, prominent industrialist of the
Tata House and the father of Indian aviation, are a few
examples. Zoroastrianism was founded by the
prophet Spitama Zarathustra. It affirms that there
is one god, Ahura Mazda (Wise Lord), other gods being
manifestations of his qualities. He is the Creator
or Ohrmazd. Here the equivalents of angels are the seven
Amesha Spentas (beneficient Immortals). Associates
of the Amesha Spentas are Yazatas presiding over sun,
moon, earth, fire etc. Corresponding to the Indian
concept of pitri or forefathers, there is the Avesta
Fravashi (Faith and Inspiration). It is supposed that
there are two spirits working in this world and one of
them is Spenta Mainyu, the spirit of growth and prayers.
The word for `soul' in the Avesta is Urva (Chosen).
The holy text of the Zoroastrians is the Avesta,
composed in a language belonging to the early Iranaian
group of languages and resembling the language of the
Vedas. The daily prayer-book the Parsis use everyday is
Khordeh Avesta (the smaller Avesta). The Videvat are
religious law books laying down codes of conduct and
procedures for penance. The Yasna is the handbook
of ceremonies, retreats etc, including the 17 cantos of
the five Gathas – Abunavaiti, Ushtavaiti, Spenta Mainyu,
Voha Khshathra and Vahishtoishti. Visparat is a
supplement of the Yasna, glorifying Ahura Mazda.
The Yashts is a reservoir of epic and historical
happenings involving warriors and kings.
All followers of Zoroastrianism have to wear the
Sadra and Kusti, a narrow band round the waist, similar
to the upavita of the brahmanas. Aiwayaonhana
(which also means stormy sky) is the term used to refer
to it in the Avesta. The band is woven out of 72 strands
of sheep wool (symbolic of the 72 chapters of the Yasna)
and is wound thrice round the waist symbolising the
three cardinal tenets of the faith: good thoughts, deeds
and words.
Zoroastrianism flourished during the Acharminian
dynasty of Cyrus, Darius, Xerexes and
others.
