Indian contributions to science and technology – I
The contributions of India to science and technology, much akin to most other spheres, had and still have far-reaching effects. The levels of sophistication attained in ancient India rivalled any other civilisation at any point of time. In fact, the origin and development of the Indian civilisation is still shrouded by mystery and recent discoveries are pushing its age further and further into the past. Recent findings off the coast of Gujarat have revealed man-made structures that are nearly 9,000 years old, below the sea.
Industrialisation of Europe started off in the late 1700s, due to the advent of the industrial revolution in Britain. One of the key innovations that contributed a great deal to this revolution was the mechanisation of weaving of cotton, which served numerous purposes, not the least of which is clothing. In a program telecasted in BBC, India was credited as the pioneer in printing and dyeing of cotton as well as the inventor of the spinning wheel, the mechanisation of which lead to the industrial revolution and turned Britain into a superpower. The summary of Indian achievements mentioned in that BBC program can be found here:
- http://www.open2.net/whattheancients/indians.html
The abovementioned example is only one of numerous pioneering achievements realised by the Indians. Science and technology are very broad terms. To list and explain the advancements made by India in these spheres are far from being simple; multiple volumes of books could be written to cover these subjects. Here, an attempt has been made to present some of the most prominent achievements, in multiple instalments. The current instalment, ‘Indian contributions to science and technology – I’ will deal with deal with minerals and metals.
One of the main sources of the level of sophistication of the Indians of the yore as far as minerals and metals are concerned, is ‘Arthasastra’ written by Kautilya (Chanakya) in the 4th century BC. The Arthasastra mentions specific uses of various metals, of which gold and silver receive maximum attention. It specifies the sources and qualities of good grade gold and silver ores. It also mentions a system of coinage based on silver and copper. As far as the gem minerals are concerned, besides natural gems, the technique of imparting colour to produce artificial gems is also mentioned.
In any discussion on metallurgy in ancient India, the ‘Wootz steel’ and the ‘iron pillar’ of Delhi feature prominently. Wootz steel is a steel alloy developed in India around 200 BC. Wootz is the anglicised version of ‘Ukku’, which, in some of the languages of south India, refers to steel. Though an ancient material, Wootz steel can also be considered as an advanced material, since it is an ultra-high carbon steel, exhibiting properties such as superplasticity and high impact hardness, and held sway for more than a millennium in three continents. This is a feat unlikely to be surpassed by advanced materials of the current era. Wootz steel was widely exported and became particularly famous in the Middle East, where it became known as ‘Damascus steel’. Swords made from Wootz steel were renowned for their sharpness and toughness.
The iron pillar in Delhi is another outstanding example of the Indian mastery over extraction and shaping of metals. Standing in the famous Qutb complex (though the pillar predates Qutb Minar by several centuries), the pillar, about seven meters high and weighing several tons, was erected by Chandragupta II (Vikramaditya). It has withstood corrosion for more than 1600 years!
Steel apart, India was also a pioneer in the production of zinc. In ancient India, zinc mines existed as early as 1000 BC. India was also the first to smelt zinc by distillation process. There are also examples of brass, an alloy of zinc and copper, from the excavations of Lothal in Gujarat (Indus-Saraswati valley civilisation), that belong to the 3rd millennium BC.
The casting of bronze in India has been in practice for more than five millennia. The Indians invented the ‘lost wax method’ to cast bronze, to create images of gods. Amazingly, this process is still being used around the world!
Diamond, the hardest known natural material and one of the most precious gems, was discovered in India in the pre-Christian era. Even 2,500 years ago, they were used as gemstones for religious purposes. It is staggering to know that up to the 19th century, India was the only place in the world where diamonds were mined! Arguably the most famous diamond ever mined is the ‘Kohinoor’, mined in the present-day Andhra Pradesh in southern India. India has the distinction of having possessed the deepest gold mines in ancient times.
The abovementioned metals and gemstones aside, India also possesses a rich history of mining and processing various other materials. As the archaeological excavations continue to unearth more and more startling finds, one can be sure that the tradition of metallurgy in ancient India may yet spring a few surprises.
REFERENCES:
- Minerals and metals in Kautilya’s Arthasastra – by Manikant Shah
- Wootz steel: an advanced material of the ancient world – by S. Srinivasan and S. Ranganathan, IISc, Bangalore
- www.wikipedia.org
- www.indianscience.org
For the columns authored by Ashok Sridhar in "Ashok Column", please click here.
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